Nitride Semiconductors and Devices

A View of the Past, and a Look into the Future by a Pioneer By Jacques I. Pankove This forword will be a brief review of important developments in the early and recent history of gallium nitride, and also a perspective on the current and future evolution of this exciting field. Gallium nitride (GaN) was syn thesized more than 50 years ago by Johnson et al. [1] in 1932, and also by Juza and Hahn [2] in 1938, who passed ammonia over hot gallium. This method produced small needles and platelets. The purpose of Juza and Hahn was to investiagte the crystal structure and lattice constant of GaN as part of a systematic study of many compounds. Two decades later, Grim al. [3] in 1959 employed the same technique to produce small cry meiss et stals of GaN for the purpose of measuring their photoluminescence spectra. Another decade later Maruska and Tietjen [4] in 1969 used a chloride trans port vapor technique to make a large-area layer of GaN on sapphire. All of the GaN made at that time was very conducting n-type even when not deli berately doped. The donors were believed to be nitrogen vacancies. Later this model was questioned by Seifert et al. [5] in 1983, and oxygen was pro as the donor. Oxygen with its 6 valence electrons on a N site (N has 5 posed valence electrons) would be a single donor.

List of contents

1. Introduction.- 2. General Properties of Nitrides.- 2.1 Crystal Structure of Nitrides.- 2.2 Gallium Nitride.- 2.3 Aluminum Nitride.- 2.4 Indium Nitride.- 2.5 Ternary and Quaternary Alloys.- 2.6 Substrates for Nitride Epitaxy.- 2A Appendix: Fundamental Data for Nitride Systems.- 3. Electronic Band Structure of Bulk and QW Nitrides.- 3.1 Band-Structure Calculations.- 3.2 Effect of Strain on the Band Structure of GaN.- 3.3 k·p Theory and the Quasi-Cubic Model.- 3.4 Quasi-Cubic Approximation.- 3.5 Confined States.- 3.6 Conduction Band.- 3.7 Valence Band.- 3.8 Exciton Binding Energy in Quantum Wells.- 3.9 Polarization Effects.- 3A Appendix.- 4. Growth of Nitride Semiconductors.- 4.1 Bulk Growth.- 4.2 Substrates Used.- 4.3 Substrate Preparation.- 4.4 Substrate Temperature.- 4.5 Epitaxial Relationship to Sapphire.- 4.6 Growth by Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy (HVPE).- 4.7 Growth by OMVPE (MOCVD).- 4.8 Molecular Beam Epitaxy.- 4.9 Growth on 6H-SiC (0001).- 4.10 Growth on ZnO.- 4.11 Growth on GaN.- 4.12 Growth of p-Type GaN.- 4.13 Growth of n-Type InN.- 4.14 Growth of n-Type Ternary and Quaternary Alloys.- 4.15 Growth of p-Type Ternary and Quaternary Alloys.- 4.16 Critical Thickness.- 5. Defects and Doping.- 5.1 Dislocations.- 5.2 Stacking-Fault Defects.- 5.3 Point Defects and Autodoping.- 5.4 Intentional Doping.- 5.5 Defect Analysis by Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy.- 5.6 Summary.- 6. Metal Contacts to GaN.- 6.1 A Primer for Semiconductor-Metal Contacts.- 6.2 Current Flow in Metal-Semiconductor Junctions.- 6.3 Resistance of an Ohmic Contact.- 6.4 Determination of the Contact Resistivity.- 6.5 Ohmic Contacts to GaN.- 6.6 Structural Analysis.- 6.7 Observations.- 7. Determination of Impurity and Carrier Concentrations.- 7.1 Impurity Binding Energy.- 7.2 Conductivity Type: HotProbe and Hall Measurements.- 7.3 Density of States and Carrier Concentration.- 7.4 Electron and Hole Concentrations.- 7.5 Temperature Dependence of the Hole Concentration.- 7.6 Temperature Dependence of the Electron Concentration.- 7.7 Multiple Occupancy of the Valence Bands.- 7A Appendix: Fermi Integral.- 8. Carrier Transport.- 8.1 Ionized Impurity Scattering.- 8.2 Polar-Optical Phonon Scattering.- 8.3 Piezoelectric Scattering.- 8.4 Acoustic Phonon Scattering.- 8.5 Alloy Scattering.- 8.6 The Hall Factor.- 8.7 Other Methods Used for Calculating the Mobility in n-GaN.- 8.8 Measured vis. a vis. Calculated Mobilities in GaN.- 8.9 Transport in 2D n-Type GaN.- 8.10 Transport in p-Type GaN and AlGaN.- 8.11 Carrier Transport in InN.- 8.12 Carrier Transport in AlN.- 8.13 Observation.- 9. The p-n Junction.- 9.1 Heterojunctions.- 9.2 Band Discontinuities.- 9.3 Electrostatic Characteristics of p-n Heterojunctions.- 9.4 Current-Voltage Characteristics on p-n Junctions.- 9.5 Calculation and Experimental I-V Characteristics of GaN Based p-n Juctions.- 9.6 Concluding Remarks.- 10. Optical Processes in Nitride Semiconductors.- 10.1 Absorption and Emission.- 10.2 Band-to-Band Transitions.- 10.3 Optical Transitions in GaN.- 10.4 Optical Properties of Nitride Heterostructures.- 11. Light-Emitting Diodes.- 11.1 Current-Conduction Mechanism in LED-Like Structures.- 11.2 Optical Output Power.- 11.3 Losses and Efficiency.- 11.4 Visible-Light Emitting Diodes.- 11.5 Nitride LED Performance.- 11.6 On the Nature of Light Emission in Nitride-Based LEDs.- 11.7 LED Degradation.- 11.8 Luminescence Conversion and White- Light Generation With Nitride LEDs.- 11.9 Organic LEDs.- 12. Semiconductor Lasers.- 12.1 A Primer to the Principles of Lasers.- 12.2 Fundamentals of Semiconductor Lasers.- 12.3 Waveguiding.- 12.4 Loss and Threshold.- 12.5 Optical Gain.- 12.6 Coulombic Effects.- 12.7 Gain Calculations for GaN.- 12.8 Threshold Current.- 12.9 Analysis of Injection Lasers with Simplifying Assumptions.- 12.10 Recombination Lifetime.- 12.11 Quantum Efficiency.- 12.12 Gain Spectra of InGaN Injection Lasers.- 12.13 Observations.- 12.14 A Succinct Review of the Laser Evolution in Nitrides.- References.

Product details

• Authors: Hadis Morkoc, Hadis Morkoç
• Publisher: Springer, Berlin
• Languages: English
• Product format: Paperback / Softback
• Released: 25.01.2013
• EAN: 9783642636479
• ISBN: 978-3-642-63647-9
• No. of pages: 489
• Dimensions: 156 mm x 28 mm x 238 mm
• Weight: 783 g
• Illustrations: XXIV, 489 p. 274 illus., 7 illus. in color.
• Series: Springer Series in Materials Science; Springer Series in Materials Science
• Subject: Natural sciences, medicine, IT, technology > Technology > Electronics, electrical engineering, communications engineering